Rural-Urban Differences in Escape Behavior of European Birds across a Latitudinal Gradient

Behavioral adjustment is a key factor that facilitates species' coexistence with humans in a rapidly urbanizing world. Because urban animals often experience reduced predation risk compared to their rural counterparts, and because escape behavior is energetically costly, we expect that urban environments will select for increased tolerance to humans. Many studies have supported this expectation by demonstrating that urban birds have reduced flight initiation distance (FID = predator-prey distance when escape by the prey begins) than rural birds. Here, we advanced this approach and, for the first time, assessed how 32 species of birds, found in 92 paired urban-rural populations, along a 3,900 km latitudinal gradient across Europe, changed their predation risk assessment and escape strategy as a function of living in urban areas. We found that urban birds took longer than rural birds to be alerted to human approaches, and urban birds tolerated closer human approach than rural birds. While both rural and urban populations took longer to become aware of an approaching human as latitude increased, this behavioral change with latitude is more intense in urban birds (for a given unit of latitude, urban birds increased their pre-detection distance more than rural birds). We also found that as mean alert distance was shorter, urban birds escaped more quickly from approaching humans, but there was no such a relationship in rural populations. Although, both rural and urban populations tended to escape more quickly as latitude increased, urban birds delayed their escape more at low latitudes when compared with rural birds. These results suggest that urban birds in Europe live under lower predation risk than their rural counterparts. Furthermore, the patterns found in our study indicate that birds prioritize the reduction of on-going monitoring costs when predation risk is low. We conclude that splitting escape variables into constituent components may provide additional and complementary information on the underlying causes of escape. This new approach is essential for understanding, predicting, and managing wildlife in a rapidly urbanizing world. Ausführliche Beschreibung

Gespeichert in:

Autor*in:	Diogo S. M. Samia [verfasserIn] Daniel T. Blumstein [verfasserIn] Mario Díaz [verfasserIn] Tomas Grim [verfasserIn] Juan Diego Ibáñez-Álamo [verfasserIn] Jukka Jokimäki [verfasserIn] Kunter Tätte [verfasserIn] Gábor Markó [verfasserIn] Piotr Tryjanowski [verfasserIn] Anders Pape Møller [verfasserIn]

Format:	E-Artikel
Sprache:	Englisch

Erschienen:	2017

Schlagwörter:	alert distance antipredator behavior buffer distance flight initiation distance phi index pre-detection distance

Übergeordnetes Werk:	In: Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution - Frontiers Media S.A., 2014, 5(2017)
Übergeordnetes Werk:	volume:5 ; year:2017

Links:	Link aufrufen Link aufrufen Link aufrufen Journal toc

DOI / URN:	10.3389/fevo.2017.00066

Katalog-ID:	DOAJ011932376

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spelling	10.3389/fevo.2017.00066 doi (DE-627)DOAJ011932376 (DE-599)DOAJc2af5f57e22c42bab8c8bb12fc35e674 DE-627 ger DE-627 rakwb eng QH359-425 QH540-549.5 Diogo S. M. Samia verfasserin aut Rural-Urban Differences in Escape Behavior of European Birds across a Latitudinal Gradient 2017 Text txt rdacontent Computermedien c rdamedia Online-Ressource cr rdacarrier Behavioral adjustment is a key factor that facilitates species' coexistence with humans in a rapidly urbanizing world. Because urban animals often experience reduced predation risk compared to their rural counterparts, and because escape behavior is energetically costly, we expect that urban environments will select for increased tolerance to humans. Many studies have supported this expectation by demonstrating that urban birds have reduced flight initiation distance (FID = predator-prey distance when escape by the prey begins) than rural birds. Here, we advanced this approach and, for the first time, assessed how 32 species of birds, found in 92 paired urban-rural populations, along a 3,900 km latitudinal gradient across Europe, changed their predation risk assessment and escape strategy as a function of living in urban areas. We found that urban birds took longer than rural birds to be alerted to human approaches, and urban birds tolerated closer human approach than rural birds. While both rural and urban populations took longer to become aware of an approaching human as latitude increased, this behavioral change with latitude is more intense in urban birds (for a given unit of latitude, urban birds increased their pre-detection distance more than rural birds). We also found that as mean alert distance was shorter, urban birds escaped more quickly from approaching humans, but there was no such a relationship in rural populations. Although, both rural and urban populations tended to escape more quickly as latitude increased, urban birds delayed their escape more at low latitudes when compared with rural birds. These results suggest that urban birds in Europe live under lower predation risk than their rural counterparts. Furthermore, the patterns found in our study indicate that birds prioritize the reduction of on-going monitoring costs when predation risk is low. We conclude that splitting escape variables into constituent components may provide additional and complementary information on the underlying causes of escape. This new approach is essential for understanding, predicting, and managing wildlife in a rapidly urbanizing world. alert distance antipredator behavior buffer distance flight initiation distance phi index pre-detection distance Evolution Ecology Daniel T. Blumstein verfasserin aut Mario Díaz verfasserin aut Tomas Grim verfasserin aut Juan Diego Ibáñez-Álamo verfasserin aut Juan Diego Ibáñez-Álamo verfasserin aut Jukka Jokimäki verfasserin aut Kunter Tätte verfasserin aut Gábor Markó verfasserin aut Gábor Markó verfasserin aut Gábor Markó verfasserin aut Piotr Tryjanowski verfasserin aut Anders Pape Møller verfasserin aut In Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution Frontiers Media S.A., 2014 5(2017) (DE-627)774108215 (DE-600)2745634-1 2296701X nnns volume:5 year:2017 https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2017.00066 kostenfrei https://doaj.org/article/c2af5f57e22c42bab8c8bb12fc35e674 kostenfrei http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fevo.2017.00066/full kostenfrei https://doaj.org/toc/2296-701X Journal toc kostenfrei GBV_USEFLAG_A SYSFLAG_A GBV_DOAJ SSG-OLC-PHA GBV_ILN_11 GBV_ILN_20 GBV_ILN_22 GBV_ILN_23 GBV_ILN_24 GBV_ILN_31 GBV_ILN_39 GBV_ILN_40 GBV_ILN_60 GBV_ILN_62 GBV_ILN_63 GBV_ILN_65 GBV_ILN_69 GBV_ILN_70 GBV_ILN_73 GBV_ILN_74 GBV_ILN_95 GBV_ILN_105 GBV_ILN_110 GBV_ILN_151 GBV_ILN_161 GBV_ILN_170 GBV_ILN_213 GBV_ILN_230 GBV_ILN_285 GBV_ILN_293 GBV_ILN_370 GBV_ILN_602 GBV_ILN_2003 GBV_ILN_2014 GBV_ILN_4012 GBV_ILN_4037 GBV_ILN_4112 GBV_ILN_4125 GBV_ILN_4126 GBV_ILN_4249 GBV_ILN_4305 GBV_ILN_4306 GBV_ILN_4307 GBV_ILN_4313 GBV_ILN_4322 GBV_ILN_4323 GBV_ILN_4324 GBV_ILN_4325 GBV_ILN_4338 GBV_ILN_4367 GBV_ILN_4700 AR 5 2017
allfields_unstemmed	10.3389/fevo.2017.00066 doi (DE-627)DOAJ011932376 (DE-599)DOAJc2af5f57e22c42bab8c8bb12fc35e674 DE-627 ger DE-627 rakwb eng QH359-425 QH540-549.5 Diogo S. M. Samia verfasserin aut Rural-Urban Differences in Escape Behavior of European Birds across a Latitudinal Gradient 2017 Text txt rdacontent Computermedien c rdamedia Online-Ressource cr rdacarrier Behavioral adjustment is a key factor that facilitates species' coexistence with humans in a rapidly urbanizing world. Because urban animals often experience reduced predation risk compared to their rural counterparts, and because escape behavior is energetically costly, we expect that urban environments will select for increased tolerance to humans. Many studies have supported this expectation by demonstrating that urban birds have reduced flight initiation distance (FID = predator-prey distance when escape by the prey begins) than rural birds. Here, we advanced this approach and, for the first time, assessed how 32 species of birds, found in 92 paired urban-rural populations, along a 3,900 km latitudinal gradient across Europe, changed their predation risk assessment and escape strategy as a function of living in urban areas. We found that urban birds took longer than rural birds to be alerted to human approaches, and urban birds tolerated closer human approach than rural birds. While both rural and urban populations took longer to become aware of an approaching human as latitude increased, this behavioral change with latitude is more intense in urban birds (for a given unit of latitude, urban birds increased their pre-detection distance more than rural birds). We also found that as mean alert distance was shorter, urban birds escaped more quickly from approaching humans, but there was no such a relationship in rural populations. Although, both rural and urban populations tended to escape more quickly as latitude increased, urban birds delayed their escape more at low latitudes when compared with rural birds. These results suggest that urban birds in Europe live under lower predation risk than their rural counterparts. Furthermore, the patterns found in our study indicate that birds prioritize the reduction of on-going monitoring costs when predation risk is low. We conclude that splitting escape variables into constituent components may provide additional and complementary information on the underlying causes of escape. This new approach is essential for understanding, predicting, and managing wildlife in a rapidly urbanizing world. alert distance antipredator behavior buffer distance flight initiation distance phi index pre-detection distance Evolution Ecology Daniel T. Blumstein verfasserin aut Mario Díaz verfasserin aut Tomas Grim verfasserin aut Juan Diego Ibáñez-Álamo verfasserin aut Juan Diego Ibáñez-Álamo verfasserin aut Jukka Jokimäki verfasserin aut Kunter Tätte verfasserin aut Gábor Markó verfasserin aut Gábor Markó verfasserin aut Gábor Markó verfasserin aut Piotr Tryjanowski verfasserin aut Anders Pape Møller verfasserin aut In Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution Frontiers Media S.A., 2014 5(2017) (DE-627)774108215 (DE-600)2745634-1 2296701X nnns volume:5 year:2017 https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2017.00066 kostenfrei https://doaj.org/article/c2af5f57e22c42bab8c8bb12fc35e674 kostenfrei http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fevo.2017.00066/full kostenfrei https://doaj.org/toc/2296-701X Journal toc kostenfrei GBV_USEFLAG_A SYSFLAG_A GBV_DOAJ SSG-OLC-PHA GBV_ILN_11 GBV_ILN_20 GBV_ILN_22 GBV_ILN_23 GBV_ILN_24 GBV_ILN_31 GBV_ILN_39 GBV_ILN_40 GBV_ILN_60 GBV_ILN_62 GBV_ILN_63 GBV_ILN_65 GBV_ILN_69 GBV_ILN_70 GBV_ILN_73 GBV_ILN_74 GBV_ILN_95 GBV_ILN_105 GBV_ILN_110 GBV_ILN_151 GBV_ILN_161 GBV_ILN_170 GBV_ILN_213 GBV_ILN_230 GBV_ILN_285 GBV_ILN_293 GBV_ILN_370 GBV_ILN_602 GBV_ILN_2003 GBV_ILN_2014 GBV_ILN_4012 GBV_ILN_4037 GBV_ILN_4112 GBV_ILN_4125 GBV_ILN_4126 GBV_ILN_4249 GBV_ILN_4305 GBV_ILN_4306 GBV_ILN_4307 GBV_ILN_4313 GBV_ILN_4322 GBV_ILN_4323 GBV_ILN_4324 GBV_ILN_4325 GBV_ILN_4338 GBV_ILN_4367 GBV_ILN_4700 AR 5 2017
allfieldsGer	10.3389/fevo.2017.00066 doi (DE-627)DOAJ011932376 (DE-599)DOAJc2af5f57e22c42bab8c8bb12fc35e674 DE-627 ger DE-627 rakwb eng QH359-425 QH540-549.5 Diogo S. M. Samia verfasserin aut Rural-Urban Differences in Escape Behavior of European Birds across a Latitudinal Gradient 2017 Text txt rdacontent Computermedien c rdamedia Online-Ressource cr rdacarrier Behavioral adjustment is a key factor that facilitates species' coexistence with humans in a rapidly urbanizing world. Because urban animals often experience reduced predation risk compared to their rural counterparts, and because escape behavior is energetically costly, we expect that urban environments will select for increased tolerance to humans. Many studies have supported this expectation by demonstrating that urban birds have reduced flight initiation distance (FID = predator-prey distance when escape by the prey begins) than rural birds. Here, we advanced this approach and, for the first time, assessed how 32 species of birds, found in 92 paired urban-rural populations, along a 3,900 km latitudinal gradient across Europe, changed their predation risk assessment and escape strategy as a function of living in urban areas. We found that urban birds took longer than rural birds to be alerted to human approaches, and urban birds tolerated closer human approach than rural birds. While both rural and urban populations took longer to become aware of an approaching human as latitude increased, this behavioral change with latitude is more intense in urban birds (for a given unit of latitude, urban birds increased their pre-detection distance more than rural birds). We also found that as mean alert distance was shorter, urban birds escaped more quickly from approaching humans, but there was no such a relationship in rural populations. Although, both rural and urban populations tended to escape more quickly as latitude increased, urban birds delayed their escape more at low latitudes when compared with rural birds. These results suggest that urban birds in Europe live under lower predation risk than their rural counterparts. Furthermore, the patterns found in our study indicate that birds prioritize the reduction of on-going monitoring costs when predation risk is low. We conclude that splitting escape variables into constituent components may provide additional and complementary information on the underlying causes of escape. This new approach is essential for understanding, predicting, and managing wildlife in a rapidly urbanizing world. alert distance antipredator behavior buffer distance flight initiation distance phi index pre-detection distance Evolution Ecology Daniel T. Blumstein verfasserin aut Mario Díaz verfasserin aut Tomas Grim verfasserin aut Juan Diego Ibáñez-Álamo verfasserin aut Juan Diego Ibáñez-Álamo verfasserin aut Jukka Jokimäki verfasserin aut Kunter Tätte verfasserin aut Gábor Markó verfasserin aut Gábor Markó verfasserin aut Gábor Markó verfasserin aut Piotr Tryjanowski verfasserin aut Anders Pape Møller verfasserin aut In Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution Frontiers Media S.A., 2014 5(2017) (DE-627)774108215 (DE-600)2745634-1 2296701X nnns volume:5 year:2017 https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2017.00066 kostenfrei https://doaj.org/article/c2af5f57e22c42bab8c8bb12fc35e674 kostenfrei http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fevo.2017.00066/full kostenfrei https://doaj.org/toc/2296-701X Journal toc kostenfrei GBV_USEFLAG_A SYSFLAG_A GBV_DOAJ SSG-OLC-PHA GBV_ILN_11 GBV_ILN_20 GBV_ILN_22 GBV_ILN_23 GBV_ILN_24 GBV_ILN_31 GBV_ILN_39 GBV_ILN_40 GBV_ILN_60 GBV_ILN_62 GBV_ILN_63 GBV_ILN_65 GBV_ILN_69 GBV_ILN_70 GBV_ILN_73 GBV_ILN_74 GBV_ILN_95 GBV_ILN_105 GBV_ILN_110 GBV_ILN_151 GBV_ILN_161 GBV_ILN_170 GBV_ILN_213 GBV_ILN_230 GBV_ILN_285 GBV_ILN_293 GBV_ILN_370 GBV_ILN_602 GBV_ILN_2003 GBV_ILN_2014 GBV_ILN_4012 GBV_ILN_4037 GBV_ILN_4112 GBV_ILN_4125 GBV_ILN_4126 GBV_ILN_4249 GBV_ILN_4305 GBV_ILN_4306 GBV_ILN_4307 GBV_ILN_4313 GBV_ILN_4322 GBV_ILN_4323 GBV_ILN_4324 GBV_ILN_4325 GBV_ILN_4338 GBV_ILN_4367 GBV_ILN_4700 AR 5 2017
allfieldsSound	10.3389/fevo.2017.00066 doi (DE-627)DOAJ011932376 (DE-599)DOAJc2af5f57e22c42bab8c8bb12fc35e674 DE-627 ger DE-627 rakwb eng QH359-425 QH540-549.5 Diogo S. M. Samia verfasserin aut Rural-Urban Differences in Escape Behavior of European Birds across a Latitudinal Gradient 2017 Text txt rdacontent Computermedien c rdamedia Online-Ressource cr rdacarrier Behavioral adjustment is a key factor that facilitates species' coexistence with humans in a rapidly urbanizing world. Because urban animals often experience reduced predation risk compared to their rural counterparts, and because escape behavior is energetically costly, we expect that urban environments will select for increased tolerance to humans. Many studies have supported this expectation by demonstrating that urban birds have reduced flight initiation distance (FID = predator-prey distance when escape by the prey begins) than rural birds. Here, we advanced this approach and, for the first time, assessed how 32 species of birds, found in 92 paired urban-rural populations, along a 3,900 km latitudinal gradient across Europe, changed their predation risk assessment and escape strategy as a function of living in urban areas. We found that urban birds took longer than rural birds to be alerted to human approaches, and urban birds tolerated closer human approach than rural birds. While both rural and urban populations took longer to become aware of an approaching human as latitude increased, this behavioral change with latitude is more intense in urban birds (for a given unit of latitude, urban birds increased their pre-detection distance more than rural birds). We also found that as mean alert distance was shorter, urban birds escaped more quickly from approaching humans, but there was no such a relationship in rural populations. Although, both rural and urban populations tended to escape more quickly as latitude increased, urban birds delayed their escape more at low latitudes when compared with rural birds. These results suggest that urban birds in Europe live under lower predation risk than their rural counterparts. Furthermore, the patterns found in our study indicate that birds prioritize the reduction of on-going monitoring costs when predation risk is low. We conclude that splitting escape variables into constituent components may provide additional and complementary information on the underlying causes of escape. This new approach is essential for understanding, predicting, and managing wildlife in a rapidly urbanizing world. alert distance antipredator behavior buffer distance flight initiation distance phi index pre-detection distance Evolution Ecology Daniel T. Blumstein verfasserin aut Mario Díaz verfasserin aut Tomas Grim verfasserin aut Juan Diego Ibáñez-Álamo verfasserin aut Juan Diego Ibáñez-Álamo verfasserin aut Jukka Jokimäki verfasserin aut Kunter Tätte verfasserin aut Gábor Markó verfasserin aut Gábor Markó verfasserin aut Gábor Markó verfasserin aut Piotr Tryjanowski verfasserin aut Anders Pape Møller verfasserin aut In Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution Frontiers Media S.A., 2014 5(2017) (DE-627)774108215 (DE-600)2745634-1 2296701X nnns volume:5 year:2017 https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2017.00066 kostenfrei https://doaj.org/article/c2af5f57e22c42bab8c8bb12fc35e674 kostenfrei http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fevo.2017.00066/full kostenfrei https://doaj.org/toc/2296-701X Journal toc kostenfrei GBV_USEFLAG_A SYSFLAG_A GBV_DOAJ SSG-OLC-PHA GBV_ILN_11 GBV_ILN_20 GBV_ILN_22 GBV_ILN_23 GBV_ILN_24 GBV_ILN_31 GBV_ILN_39 GBV_ILN_40 GBV_ILN_60 GBV_ILN_62 GBV_ILN_63 GBV_ILN_65 GBV_ILN_69 GBV_ILN_70 GBV_ILN_73 GBV_ILN_74 GBV_ILN_95 GBV_ILN_105 GBV_ILN_110 GBV_ILN_151 GBV_ILN_161 GBV_ILN_170 GBV_ILN_213 GBV_ILN_230 GBV_ILN_285 GBV_ILN_293 GBV_ILN_370 GBV_ILN_602 GBV_ILN_2003 GBV_ILN_2014 GBV_ILN_4012 GBV_ILN_4037 GBV_ILN_4112 GBV_ILN_4125 GBV_ILN_4126 GBV_ILN_4249 GBV_ILN_4305 GBV_ILN_4306 GBV_ILN_4307 GBV_ILN_4313 GBV_ILN_4322 GBV_ILN_4323 GBV_ILN_4324 GBV_ILN_4325 GBV_ILN_4338 GBV_ILN_4367 GBV_ILN_4700 AR 5 2017
language	English
source	In Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 5(2017) volume:5 year:2017
sourceStr	In Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 5(2017) volume:5 year:2017
format_phy_str_mv	Article
institution	findex.gbv.de
topic_facet	alert distance antipredator behavior buffer distance flight initiation distance phi index pre-detection distance Evolution Ecology
isfreeaccess_bool	true
container_title	Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution
authorswithroles_txt_mv	Diogo S. M. Samia @@aut@@ Daniel T. Blumstein @@aut@@ Mario Díaz @@aut@@ Tomas Grim @@aut@@ Juan Diego Ibáñez-Álamo @@aut@@ Jukka Jokimäki @@aut@@ Kunter Tätte @@aut@@ Gábor Markó @@aut@@ Piotr Tryjanowski @@aut@@ Anders Pape Møller @@aut@@
publishDateDaySort_date	2017-01-01T00:00:00Z
hierarchy_top_id	774108215
id	DOAJ011932376
language_de	englisch
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callnumber-first	Q - Science
author	Diogo S. M. Samia
spellingShingle	Diogo S. M. Samia misc QH359-425 misc QH540-549.5 misc alert distance misc antipredator behavior misc buffer distance misc flight initiation distance misc phi index misc pre-detection distance misc Evolution misc Ecology Rural-Urban Differences in Escape Behavior of European Birds across a Latitudinal Gradient
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topic_title	QH359-425 QH540-549.5 Rural-Urban Differences in Escape Behavior of European Birds across a Latitudinal Gradient alert distance antipredator behavior buffer distance flight initiation distance phi index pre-detection distance
topic	misc QH359-425 misc QH540-549.5 misc alert distance misc antipredator behavior misc buffer distance misc flight initiation distance misc phi index misc pre-detection distance misc Evolution misc Ecology
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title	Rural-Urban Differences in Escape Behavior of European Birds across a Latitudinal Gradient
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title_full	Rural-Urban Differences in Escape Behavior of European Birds across a Latitudinal Gradient
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author_browse	Diogo S. M. Samia Daniel T. Blumstein Mario Díaz Tomas Grim Juan Diego Ibáñez-Álamo Jukka Jokimäki Kunter Tätte Gábor Markó Piotr Tryjanowski Anders Pape Møller
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title_sort	rural-urban differences in escape behavior of european birds across a latitudinal gradient
callnumber	QH359-425
title_auth	Rural-Urban Differences in Escape Behavior of European Birds across a Latitudinal Gradient
abstract	Behavioral adjustment is a key factor that facilitates species' coexistence with humans in a rapidly urbanizing world. Because urban animals often experience reduced predation risk compared to their rural counterparts, and because escape behavior is energetically costly, we expect that urban environments will select for increased tolerance to humans. Many studies have supported this expectation by demonstrating that urban birds have reduced flight initiation distance (FID = predator-prey distance when escape by the prey begins) than rural birds. Here, we advanced this approach and, for the first time, assessed how 32 species of birds, found in 92 paired urban-rural populations, along a 3,900 km latitudinal gradient across Europe, changed their predation risk assessment and escape strategy as a function of living in urban areas. We found that urban birds took longer than rural birds to be alerted to human approaches, and urban birds tolerated closer human approach than rural birds. While both rural and urban populations took longer to become aware of an approaching human as latitude increased, this behavioral change with latitude is more intense in urban birds (for a given unit of latitude, urban birds increased their pre-detection distance more than rural birds). We also found that as mean alert distance was shorter, urban birds escaped more quickly from approaching humans, but there was no such a relationship in rural populations. Although, both rural and urban populations tended to escape more quickly as latitude increased, urban birds delayed their escape more at low latitudes when compared with rural birds. These results suggest that urban birds in Europe live under lower predation risk than their rural counterparts. Furthermore, the patterns found in our study indicate that birds prioritize the reduction of on-going monitoring costs when predation risk is low. We conclude that splitting escape variables into constituent components may provide additional and complementary information on the underlying causes of escape. This new approach is essential for understanding, predicting, and managing wildlife in a rapidly urbanizing world.
abstractGer	Behavioral adjustment is a key factor that facilitates species' coexistence with humans in a rapidly urbanizing world. Because urban animals often experience reduced predation risk compared to their rural counterparts, and because escape behavior is energetically costly, we expect that urban environments will select for increased tolerance to humans. Many studies have supported this expectation by demonstrating that urban birds have reduced flight initiation distance (FID = predator-prey distance when escape by the prey begins) than rural birds. Here, we advanced this approach and, for the first time, assessed how 32 species of birds, found in 92 paired urban-rural populations, along a 3,900 km latitudinal gradient across Europe, changed their predation risk assessment and escape strategy as a function of living in urban areas. We found that urban birds took longer than rural birds to be alerted to human approaches, and urban birds tolerated closer human approach than rural birds. While both rural and urban populations took longer to become aware of an approaching human as latitude increased, this behavioral change with latitude is more intense in urban birds (for a given unit of latitude, urban birds increased their pre-detection distance more than rural birds). We also found that as mean alert distance was shorter, urban birds escaped more quickly from approaching humans, but there was no such a relationship in rural populations. Although, both rural and urban populations tended to escape more quickly as latitude increased, urban birds delayed their escape more at low latitudes when compared with rural birds. These results suggest that urban birds in Europe live under lower predation risk than their rural counterparts. Furthermore, the patterns found in our study indicate that birds prioritize the reduction of on-going monitoring costs when predation risk is low. We conclude that splitting escape variables into constituent components may provide additional and complementary information on the underlying causes of escape. This new approach is essential for understanding, predicting, and managing wildlife in a rapidly urbanizing world.
abstract_unstemmed	Behavioral adjustment is a key factor that facilitates species' coexistence with humans in a rapidly urbanizing world. Because urban animals often experience reduced predation risk compared to their rural counterparts, and because escape behavior is energetically costly, we expect that urban environments will select for increased tolerance to humans. Many studies have supported this expectation by demonstrating that urban birds have reduced flight initiation distance (FID = predator-prey distance when escape by the prey begins) than rural birds. Here, we advanced this approach and, for the first time, assessed how 32 species of birds, found in 92 paired urban-rural populations, along a 3,900 km latitudinal gradient across Europe, changed their predation risk assessment and escape strategy as a function of living in urban areas. We found that urban birds took longer than rural birds to be alerted to human approaches, and urban birds tolerated closer human approach than rural birds. While both rural and urban populations took longer to become aware of an approaching human as latitude increased, this behavioral change with latitude is more intense in urban birds (for a given unit of latitude, urban birds increased their pre-detection distance more than rural birds). We also found that as mean alert distance was shorter, urban birds escaped more quickly from approaching humans, but there was no such a relationship in rural populations. Although, both rural and urban populations tended to escape more quickly as latitude increased, urban birds delayed their escape more at low latitudes when compared with rural birds. These results suggest that urban birds in Europe live under lower predation risk than their rural counterparts. Furthermore, the patterns found in our study indicate that birds prioritize the reduction of on-going monitoring costs when predation risk is low. We conclude that splitting escape variables into constituent components may provide additional and complementary information on the underlying causes of escape. This new approach is essential for understanding, predicting, and managing wildlife in a rapidly urbanizing world.
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title_short	Rural-Urban Differences in Escape Behavior of European Birds across a Latitudinal Gradient
url	https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2017.00066 https://doaj.org/article/c2af5f57e22c42bab8c8bb12fc35e674 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fevo.2017.00066/full https://doaj.org/toc/2296-701X
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author2	Daniel T. Blumstein Mario Díaz Tomas Grim Juan Diego Ibáñez-Álamo Jukka Jokimäki Kunter Tätte Gábor Markó Piotr Tryjanowski Anders Pape Møller
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