Asynchronous RTK precise DGNSS positioning method for deriving a low-latency high-rate output
Abstract Low-latency high-rate ($$>$$1 Hz) precise real-time kinematic (RTK) can be applied in high-speed scenarios such as aircraft automatic landing, precise agriculture and intelligent vehicle. The classic synchronous RTK (SRTK) precise differential GNSS (DGNSS) positioning technology, however...
Ausführliche Beschreibung
Gespeichert in:
| Autor*in: |
Liang, Zhang [verfasserIn] |
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| Format: |
Artikel |
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| Sprache: |
Englisch |
| Erschienen: |
2015 |
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| Schlagwörter: |
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| Anmerkung: |
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015 |
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| Übergeordnetes Werk: |
Enthalten in: Journal of geodesy - Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1995, 89(2015), 7 vom: 15. März, Seite 641-653 |
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| Übergeordnetes Werk: |
volume:89 ; year:2015 ; number:7 ; day:15 ; month:03 ; pages:641-653 |
| Links: |
|---|
| DOI / URN: |
10.1007/s00190-015-0803-7 |
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| Katalog-ID: |
OLC2058946510 |
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| 520 | |a Abstract Low-latency high-rate ($$>$$1 Hz) precise real-time kinematic (RTK) can be applied in high-speed scenarios such as aircraft automatic landing, precise agriculture and intelligent vehicle. The classic synchronous RTK (SRTK) precise differential GNSS (DGNSS) positioning technology, however, is not able to obtain a low-latency high-rate output for the rover receiver because of long data link transmission time delays (DLTTD) from the reference receiver. To overcome the long DLTTD, this paper proposes an asynchronous real-time kinematic (ARTK) method using asynchronous observations from two receivers. The asynchronous observation model (AOM) is developed based on undifferenced carrier phase observation equations of the two receivers at different epochs with short baseline. The ephemeris error and atmosphere delay are the possible main error sources on positioning accuracy in this model, and they are analyzed theoretically. In a short DLTTD and during a period of quiet ionosphere activity, the main error sources decreasing positioning accuracy are satellite orbital errors: the “inverted ephemeris error” and the integration of satellite velocity error which increase linearly along with DLTTD. The cycle slip of asynchronous double-differencing carrier phase is detected by TurboEdit method and repaired by the additional ambiguity parameter method. The AOM can deal with synchronous observation model (SOM) and achieve precise positioning solution with synchronous observations as well, since the SOM is only a specific case of AOM. The proposed method not only can reduce the cost of data collection and transmission, but can also support the mobile phone network data link transfer mode for the data of the reference receiver. This method can avoid data synchronizing process besides ambiguity initialization step, which is very convenient for real-time navigation of vehicles. The static and kinematic experiment results show that this method achieves 20 Hz or even higher rate output in real time. The ARTK positioning accuracy is better and more robust than the combination of phase difference over time (PDOT) and SRTK method at a high rate. The ARTK positioning accuracy is equivalent to SRTK solution when the DLTTD is 0.5 s, and centimeter level accuracy can be achieved even when DLTTD is 15 s. | ||
| 650 | 4 | |a Asynchronous | |
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| 650 | 4 | |a High accuracy | |
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| 700 | 1 | |a Jie, Wu |4 aut | |
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10.1007/s00190-015-0803-7 doi (DE-627)OLC2058946510 (DE-He213)s00190-015-0803-7-p DE-627 ger DE-627 rakwb eng 550 VZ 14 ssgn Liang, Zhang verfasserin aut Asynchronous RTK precise DGNSS positioning method for deriving a low-latency high-rate output 2015 Text txt rdacontent ohne Hilfsmittel zu benutzen n rdamedia Band nc rdacarrier © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015 Abstract Low-latency high-rate ($$>$$1 Hz) precise real-time kinematic (RTK) can be applied in high-speed scenarios such as aircraft automatic landing, precise agriculture and intelligent vehicle. The classic synchronous RTK (SRTK) precise differential GNSS (DGNSS) positioning technology, however, is not able to obtain a low-latency high-rate output for the rover receiver because of long data link transmission time delays (DLTTD) from the reference receiver. To overcome the long DLTTD, this paper proposes an asynchronous real-time kinematic (ARTK) method using asynchronous observations from two receivers. The asynchronous observation model (AOM) is developed based on undifferenced carrier phase observation equations of the two receivers at different epochs with short baseline. The ephemeris error and atmosphere delay are the possible main error sources on positioning accuracy in this model, and they are analyzed theoretically. In a short DLTTD and during a period of quiet ionosphere activity, the main error sources decreasing positioning accuracy are satellite orbital errors: the “inverted ephemeris error” and the integration of satellite velocity error which increase linearly along with DLTTD. The cycle slip of asynchronous double-differencing carrier phase is detected by TurboEdit method and repaired by the additional ambiguity parameter method. The AOM can deal with synchronous observation model (SOM) and achieve precise positioning solution with synchronous observations as well, since the SOM is only a specific case of AOM. The proposed method not only can reduce the cost of data collection and transmission, but can also support the mobile phone network data link transfer mode for the data of the reference receiver. This method can avoid data synchronizing process besides ambiguity initialization step, which is very convenient for real-time navigation of vehicles. The static and kinematic experiment results show that this method achieves 20 Hz or even higher rate output in real time. The ARTK positioning accuracy is better and more robust than the combination of phase difference over time (PDOT) and SRTK method at a high rate. The ARTK positioning accuracy is equivalent to SRTK solution when the DLTTD is 0.5 s, and centimeter level accuracy can be achieved even when DLTTD is 15 s. Asynchronous RTK High accuracy High-rate Hanfeng, Lv aut Dingjie, Wang aut Yanqing, Hou aut Jie, Wu aut Enthalten in Journal of geodesy Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1995 89(2015), 7 vom: 15. März, Seite 641-653 (DE-627)191686298 (DE-600)1302972-1 (DE-576)051377373 0949-7714 nnns volume:89 year:2015 number:7 day:15 month:03 pages:641-653 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00190-015-0803-7 lizenzpflichtig Volltext GBV_USEFLAG_A SYSFLAG_A GBV_OLC SSG-OLC-GEO SSG-OPC-GGO SSG-OPC-GEO GBV_ILN_11 GBV_ILN_70 GBV_ILN_2018 GBV_ILN_4277 AR 89 2015 7 15 03 641-653 |
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10.1007/s00190-015-0803-7 doi (DE-627)OLC2058946510 (DE-He213)s00190-015-0803-7-p DE-627 ger DE-627 rakwb eng 550 VZ 14 ssgn Liang, Zhang verfasserin aut Asynchronous RTK precise DGNSS positioning method for deriving a low-latency high-rate output 2015 Text txt rdacontent ohne Hilfsmittel zu benutzen n rdamedia Band nc rdacarrier © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015 Abstract Low-latency high-rate ($$>$$1 Hz) precise real-time kinematic (RTK) can be applied in high-speed scenarios such as aircraft automatic landing, precise agriculture and intelligent vehicle. The classic synchronous RTK (SRTK) precise differential GNSS (DGNSS) positioning technology, however, is not able to obtain a low-latency high-rate output for the rover receiver because of long data link transmission time delays (DLTTD) from the reference receiver. To overcome the long DLTTD, this paper proposes an asynchronous real-time kinematic (ARTK) method using asynchronous observations from two receivers. The asynchronous observation model (AOM) is developed based on undifferenced carrier phase observation equations of the two receivers at different epochs with short baseline. The ephemeris error and atmosphere delay are the possible main error sources on positioning accuracy in this model, and they are analyzed theoretically. In a short DLTTD and during a period of quiet ionosphere activity, the main error sources decreasing positioning accuracy are satellite orbital errors: the “inverted ephemeris error” and the integration of satellite velocity error which increase linearly along with DLTTD. The cycle slip of asynchronous double-differencing carrier phase is detected by TurboEdit method and repaired by the additional ambiguity parameter method. The AOM can deal with synchronous observation model (SOM) and achieve precise positioning solution with synchronous observations as well, since the SOM is only a specific case of AOM. The proposed method not only can reduce the cost of data collection and transmission, but can also support the mobile phone network data link transfer mode for the data of the reference receiver. This method can avoid data synchronizing process besides ambiguity initialization step, which is very convenient for real-time navigation of vehicles. The static and kinematic experiment results show that this method achieves 20 Hz or even higher rate output in real time. The ARTK positioning accuracy is better and more robust than the combination of phase difference over time (PDOT) and SRTK method at a high rate. The ARTK positioning accuracy is equivalent to SRTK solution when the DLTTD is 0.5 s, and centimeter level accuracy can be achieved even when DLTTD is 15 s. Asynchronous RTK High accuracy High-rate Hanfeng, Lv aut Dingjie, Wang aut Yanqing, Hou aut Jie, Wu aut Enthalten in Journal of geodesy Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1995 89(2015), 7 vom: 15. März, Seite 641-653 (DE-627)191686298 (DE-600)1302972-1 (DE-576)051377373 0949-7714 nnns volume:89 year:2015 number:7 day:15 month:03 pages:641-653 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00190-015-0803-7 lizenzpflichtig Volltext GBV_USEFLAG_A SYSFLAG_A GBV_OLC SSG-OLC-GEO SSG-OPC-GGO SSG-OPC-GEO GBV_ILN_11 GBV_ILN_70 GBV_ILN_2018 GBV_ILN_4277 AR 89 2015 7 15 03 641-653 |
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10.1007/s00190-015-0803-7 doi (DE-627)OLC2058946510 (DE-He213)s00190-015-0803-7-p DE-627 ger DE-627 rakwb eng 550 VZ 14 ssgn Liang, Zhang verfasserin aut Asynchronous RTK precise DGNSS positioning method for deriving a low-latency high-rate output 2015 Text txt rdacontent ohne Hilfsmittel zu benutzen n rdamedia Band nc rdacarrier © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015 Abstract Low-latency high-rate ($$>$$1 Hz) precise real-time kinematic (RTK) can be applied in high-speed scenarios such as aircraft automatic landing, precise agriculture and intelligent vehicle. The classic synchronous RTK (SRTK) precise differential GNSS (DGNSS) positioning technology, however, is not able to obtain a low-latency high-rate output for the rover receiver because of long data link transmission time delays (DLTTD) from the reference receiver. To overcome the long DLTTD, this paper proposes an asynchronous real-time kinematic (ARTK) method using asynchronous observations from two receivers. The asynchronous observation model (AOM) is developed based on undifferenced carrier phase observation equations of the two receivers at different epochs with short baseline. The ephemeris error and atmosphere delay are the possible main error sources on positioning accuracy in this model, and they are analyzed theoretically. In a short DLTTD and during a period of quiet ionosphere activity, the main error sources decreasing positioning accuracy are satellite orbital errors: the “inverted ephemeris error” and the integration of satellite velocity error which increase linearly along with DLTTD. The cycle slip of asynchronous double-differencing carrier phase is detected by TurboEdit method and repaired by the additional ambiguity parameter method. The AOM can deal with synchronous observation model (SOM) and achieve precise positioning solution with synchronous observations as well, since the SOM is only a specific case of AOM. The proposed method not only can reduce the cost of data collection and transmission, but can also support the mobile phone network data link transfer mode for the data of the reference receiver. This method can avoid data synchronizing process besides ambiguity initialization step, which is very convenient for real-time navigation of vehicles. The static and kinematic experiment results show that this method achieves 20 Hz or even higher rate output in real time. The ARTK positioning accuracy is better and more robust than the combination of phase difference over time (PDOT) and SRTK method at a high rate. The ARTK positioning accuracy is equivalent to SRTK solution when the DLTTD is 0.5 s, and centimeter level accuracy can be achieved even when DLTTD is 15 s. Asynchronous RTK High accuracy High-rate Hanfeng, Lv aut Dingjie, Wang aut Yanqing, Hou aut Jie, Wu aut Enthalten in Journal of geodesy Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1995 89(2015), 7 vom: 15. März, Seite 641-653 (DE-627)191686298 (DE-600)1302972-1 (DE-576)051377373 0949-7714 nnns volume:89 year:2015 number:7 day:15 month:03 pages:641-653 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00190-015-0803-7 lizenzpflichtig Volltext GBV_USEFLAG_A SYSFLAG_A GBV_OLC SSG-OLC-GEO SSG-OPC-GGO SSG-OPC-GEO GBV_ILN_11 GBV_ILN_70 GBV_ILN_2018 GBV_ILN_4277 AR 89 2015 7 15 03 641-653 |
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10.1007/s00190-015-0803-7 doi (DE-627)OLC2058946510 (DE-He213)s00190-015-0803-7-p DE-627 ger DE-627 rakwb eng 550 VZ 14 ssgn Liang, Zhang verfasserin aut Asynchronous RTK precise DGNSS positioning method for deriving a low-latency high-rate output 2015 Text txt rdacontent ohne Hilfsmittel zu benutzen n rdamedia Band nc rdacarrier © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015 Abstract Low-latency high-rate ($$>$$1 Hz) precise real-time kinematic (RTK) can be applied in high-speed scenarios such as aircraft automatic landing, precise agriculture and intelligent vehicle. The classic synchronous RTK (SRTK) precise differential GNSS (DGNSS) positioning technology, however, is not able to obtain a low-latency high-rate output for the rover receiver because of long data link transmission time delays (DLTTD) from the reference receiver. To overcome the long DLTTD, this paper proposes an asynchronous real-time kinematic (ARTK) method using asynchronous observations from two receivers. The asynchronous observation model (AOM) is developed based on undifferenced carrier phase observation equations of the two receivers at different epochs with short baseline. The ephemeris error and atmosphere delay are the possible main error sources on positioning accuracy in this model, and they are analyzed theoretically. In a short DLTTD and during a period of quiet ionosphere activity, the main error sources decreasing positioning accuracy are satellite orbital errors: the “inverted ephemeris error” and the integration of satellite velocity error which increase linearly along with DLTTD. The cycle slip of asynchronous double-differencing carrier phase is detected by TurboEdit method and repaired by the additional ambiguity parameter method. The AOM can deal with synchronous observation model (SOM) and achieve precise positioning solution with synchronous observations as well, since the SOM is only a specific case of AOM. The proposed method not only can reduce the cost of data collection and transmission, but can also support the mobile phone network data link transfer mode for the data of the reference receiver. This method can avoid data synchronizing process besides ambiguity initialization step, which is very convenient for real-time navigation of vehicles. The static and kinematic experiment results show that this method achieves 20 Hz or even higher rate output in real time. The ARTK positioning accuracy is better and more robust than the combination of phase difference over time (PDOT) and SRTK method at a high rate. The ARTK positioning accuracy is equivalent to SRTK solution when the DLTTD is 0.5 s, and centimeter level accuracy can be achieved even when DLTTD is 15 s. Asynchronous RTK High accuracy High-rate Hanfeng, Lv aut Dingjie, Wang aut Yanqing, Hou aut Jie, Wu aut Enthalten in Journal of geodesy Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1995 89(2015), 7 vom: 15. März, Seite 641-653 (DE-627)191686298 (DE-600)1302972-1 (DE-576)051377373 0949-7714 nnns volume:89 year:2015 number:7 day:15 month:03 pages:641-653 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00190-015-0803-7 lizenzpflichtig Volltext GBV_USEFLAG_A SYSFLAG_A GBV_OLC SSG-OLC-GEO SSG-OPC-GGO SSG-OPC-GEO GBV_ILN_11 GBV_ILN_70 GBV_ILN_2018 GBV_ILN_4277 AR 89 2015 7 15 03 641-653 |
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10.1007/s00190-015-0803-7 doi (DE-627)OLC2058946510 (DE-He213)s00190-015-0803-7-p DE-627 ger DE-627 rakwb eng 550 VZ 14 ssgn Liang, Zhang verfasserin aut Asynchronous RTK precise DGNSS positioning method for deriving a low-latency high-rate output 2015 Text txt rdacontent ohne Hilfsmittel zu benutzen n rdamedia Band nc rdacarrier © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015 Abstract Low-latency high-rate ($$>$$1 Hz) precise real-time kinematic (RTK) can be applied in high-speed scenarios such as aircraft automatic landing, precise agriculture and intelligent vehicle. The classic synchronous RTK (SRTK) precise differential GNSS (DGNSS) positioning technology, however, is not able to obtain a low-latency high-rate output for the rover receiver because of long data link transmission time delays (DLTTD) from the reference receiver. To overcome the long DLTTD, this paper proposes an asynchronous real-time kinematic (ARTK) method using asynchronous observations from two receivers. The asynchronous observation model (AOM) is developed based on undifferenced carrier phase observation equations of the two receivers at different epochs with short baseline. The ephemeris error and atmosphere delay are the possible main error sources on positioning accuracy in this model, and they are analyzed theoretically. In a short DLTTD and during a period of quiet ionosphere activity, the main error sources decreasing positioning accuracy are satellite orbital errors: the “inverted ephemeris error” and the integration of satellite velocity error which increase linearly along with DLTTD. The cycle slip of asynchronous double-differencing carrier phase is detected by TurboEdit method and repaired by the additional ambiguity parameter method. The AOM can deal with synchronous observation model (SOM) and achieve precise positioning solution with synchronous observations as well, since the SOM is only a specific case of AOM. The proposed method not only can reduce the cost of data collection and transmission, but can also support the mobile phone network data link transfer mode for the data of the reference receiver. This method can avoid data synchronizing process besides ambiguity initialization step, which is very convenient for real-time navigation of vehicles. The static and kinematic experiment results show that this method achieves 20 Hz or even higher rate output in real time. The ARTK positioning accuracy is better and more robust than the combination of phase difference over time (PDOT) and SRTK method at a high rate. The ARTK positioning accuracy is equivalent to SRTK solution when the DLTTD is 0.5 s, and centimeter level accuracy can be achieved even when DLTTD is 15 s. Asynchronous RTK High accuracy High-rate Hanfeng, Lv aut Dingjie, Wang aut Yanqing, Hou aut Jie, Wu aut Enthalten in Journal of geodesy Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1995 89(2015), 7 vom: 15. März, Seite 641-653 (DE-627)191686298 (DE-600)1302972-1 (DE-576)051377373 0949-7714 nnns volume:89 year:2015 number:7 day:15 month:03 pages:641-653 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00190-015-0803-7 lizenzpflichtig Volltext GBV_USEFLAG_A SYSFLAG_A GBV_OLC SSG-OLC-GEO SSG-OPC-GGO SSG-OPC-GEO GBV_ILN_11 GBV_ILN_70 GBV_ILN_2018 GBV_ILN_4277 AR 89 2015 7 15 03 641-653 |
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asynchronous rtk precise dgnss positioning method for deriving a low-latency high-rate output |
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Asynchronous RTK precise DGNSS positioning method for deriving a low-latency high-rate output |
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Abstract Low-latency high-rate ($$>$$1 Hz) precise real-time kinematic (RTK) can be applied in high-speed scenarios such as aircraft automatic landing, precise agriculture and intelligent vehicle. The classic synchronous RTK (SRTK) precise differential GNSS (DGNSS) positioning technology, however, is not able to obtain a low-latency high-rate output for the rover receiver because of long data link transmission time delays (DLTTD) from the reference receiver. To overcome the long DLTTD, this paper proposes an asynchronous real-time kinematic (ARTK) method using asynchronous observations from two receivers. The asynchronous observation model (AOM) is developed based on undifferenced carrier phase observation equations of the two receivers at different epochs with short baseline. The ephemeris error and atmosphere delay are the possible main error sources on positioning accuracy in this model, and they are analyzed theoretically. In a short DLTTD and during a period of quiet ionosphere activity, the main error sources decreasing positioning accuracy are satellite orbital errors: the “inverted ephemeris error” and the integration of satellite velocity error which increase linearly along with DLTTD. The cycle slip of asynchronous double-differencing carrier phase is detected by TurboEdit method and repaired by the additional ambiguity parameter method. The AOM can deal with synchronous observation model (SOM) and achieve precise positioning solution with synchronous observations as well, since the SOM is only a specific case of AOM. The proposed method not only can reduce the cost of data collection and transmission, but can also support the mobile phone network data link transfer mode for the data of the reference receiver. This method can avoid data synchronizing process besides ambiguity initialization step, which is very convenient for real-time navigation of vehicles. The static and kinematic experiment results show that this method achieves 20 Hz or even higher rate output in real time. The ARTK positioning accuracy is better and more robust than the combination of phase difference over time (PDOT) and SRTK method at a high rate. The ARTK positioning accuracy is equivalent to SRTK solution when the DLTTD is 0.5 s, and centimeter level accuracy can be achieved even when DLTTD is 15 s. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015 |
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Abstract Low-latency high-rate ($$>$$1 Hz) precise real-time kinematic (RTK) can be applied in high-speed scenarios such as aircraft automatic landing, precise agriculture and intelligent vehicle. The classic synchronous RTK (SRTK) precise differential GNSS (DGNSS) positioning technology, however, is not able to obtain a low-latency high-rate output for the rover receiver because of long data link transmission time delays (DLTTD) from the reference receiver. To overcome the long DLTTD, this paper proposes an asynchronous real-time kinematic (ARTK) method using asynchronous observations from two receivers. The asynchronous observation model (AOM) is developed based on undifferenced carrier phase observation equations of the two receivers at different epochs with short baseline. The ephemeris error and atmosphere delay are the possible main error sources on positioning accuracy in this model, and they are analyzed theoretically. In a short DLTTD and during a period of quiet ionosphere activity, the main error sources decreasing positioning accuracy are satellite orbital errors: the “inverted ephemeris error” and the integration of satellite velocity error which increase linearly along with DLTTD. The cycle slip of asynchronous double-differencing carrier phase is detected by TurboEdit method and repaired by the additional ambiguity parameter method. The AOM can deal with synchronous observation model (SOM) and achieve precise positioning solution with synchronous observations as well, since the SOM is only a specific case of AOM. The proposed method not only can reduce the cost of data collection and transmission, but can also support the mobile phone network data link transfer mode for the data of the reference receiver. This method can avoid data synchronizing process besides ambiguity initialization step, which is very convenient for real-time navigation of vehicles. The static and kinematic experiment results show that this method achieves 20 Hz or even higher rate output in real time. The ARTK positioning accuracy is better and more robust than the combination of phase difference over time (PDOT) and SRTK method at a high rate. The ARTK positioning accuracy is equivalent to SRTK solution when the DLTTD is 0.5 s, and centimeter level accuracy can be achieved even when DLTTD is 15 s. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015 |
| abstract_unstemmed |
Abstract Low-latency high-rate ($$>$$1 Hz) precise real-time kinematic (RTK) can be applied in high-speed scenarios such as aircraft automatic landing, precise agriculture and intelligent vehicle. The classic synchronous RTK (SRTK) precise differential GNSS (DGNSS) positioning technology, however, is not able to obtain a low-latency high-rate output for the rover receiver because of long data link transmission time delays (DLTTD) from the reference receiver. To overcome the long DLTTD, this paper proposes an asynchronous real-time kinematic (ARTK) method using asynchronous observations from two receivers. The asynchronous observation model (AOM) is developed based on undifferenced carrier phase observation equations of the two receivers at different epochs with short baseline. The ephemeris error and atmosphere delay are the possible main error sources on positioning accuracy in this model, and they are analyzed theoretically. In a short DLTTD and during a period of quiet ionosphere activity, the main error sources decreasing positioning accuracy are satellite orbital errors: the “inverted ephemeris error” and the integration of satellite velocity error which increase linearly along with DLTTD. The cycle slip of asynchronous double-differencing carrier phase is detected by TurboEdit method and repaired by the additional ambiguity parameter method. The AOM can deal with synchronous observation model (SOM) and achieve precise positioning solution with synchronous observations as well, since the SOM is only a specific case of AOM. The proposed method not only can reduce the cost of data collection and transmission, but can also support the mobile phone network data link transfer mode for the data of the reference receiver. This method can avoid data synchronizing process besides ambiguity initialization step, which is very convenient for real-time navigation of vehicles. The static and kinematic experiment results show that this method achieves 20 Hz or even higher rate output in real time. The ARTK positioning accuracy is better and more robust than the combination of phase difference over time (PDOT) and SRTK method at a high rate. The ARTK positioning accuracy is equivalent to SRTK solution when the DLTTD is 0.5 s, and centimeter level accuracy can be achieved even when DLTTD is 15 s. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015 |
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